Is Light a Wave or a Particle?

Is Light a Wave or a Particle? Is light a wave or a collection of particles? The answer is both, Light can be modelled as an electromagnetic wave or a stream of photons Light is an electromagnetic wave as it travels through a vacuum of outer space to transfer its energy from one location to another. ( The physics classroom, 1996-2014) Electromagnetic waves are created by the vibration of an electric charge. This vibration creates a wave which has both an electric and a magnetic component. An electromagnetic wave transports its energy through a vacuum at a speed of 3.00 x 108 m/s (a speed value commonly represented by the symbol c). The Wave theory of was originally developed by Huygens His theory said that light travelled through space by travelling through a medium known as the ether, a mystical weightless substance, which exists as an invisible entity throughout air and space. Huygens believed that ether vibrated in the same direction as light, and formed a wave itself as it carried the light waves. Huygens Principle described how each point on a wave could produce its own wavelets, which then added together to form a wavefront. Light also displays certain properties of waves such as reflection, refraction and diffraction. These occur when a wave reaches the end of the medium. Reflection is when the light bounces off an obstacle. The most common example is the reflection of light waves off mirrored surface results in the formation of an image. Another characteristic of wave reflection is that the angle at which the wave approaches a flat reflecting surface is equal to the angle at which the wave leaves the surface. Reflection is observed in water and sound waves and is also observed in light. (The physics classroom, 1996-2014) Refraction is when a wave passes from one medium to another medium. When the wave crosses the boundary between the two mediums the direction of the wave changes and the path of the wave is essentially bent. The direction of the bend depends on the speed at which the wave is moving through the mediums, if it is moving from a fast medium to a slow medium it will bend one way and going from a slow medium to a fast medium it will bend the opposite way. The angle of the bend will depend on the actual speeds of the two mediums. (The physics classroom, 1996-2014) Refraction occurs in sound and water waves. It can be seen in light in the refraction of light through a glass or a mirage is an optical illusion caused when light waves moving from the sky toward the ground are bent by the heated air Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or around an obstacle in their path. Water and sound waves have the ability to travel around corners, around obstacles and through openings. When light encounters an obstacle in its path, the obstacle blocks the light and tends to cause the formation of a shadow in the region behind the obstacle. Light does not exhibit a very noticeable ability to bend around the obstacle and fill in the region behind it with light. Nonetheless, light does diffract around obstacles. In fact, if you observe a shadow carefully, you will notice that its edges are extremely fuzzy. Interference effects occur due to the diffraction of light around different sides of the object, causing the shadow of the object to be fuzzy. This is often demonstrated with a laser light and penny demonstration. Light diffracting around the right edge of a penny can constructively and destructively interfere with light diffracting around the left edge of the penny. The result is that an interference pattern is created; the pattern consists of alternating rings of light and darkness. As can be seen in this photo. How can we test if light is a wave? An experiment called the double slit experiment was designed by the scientist Thomas Young. It required a light source, a thin card with two holes cut side by side and a screen. To run the experiment, Young allowed a beam of light to pass through a pinhole and strike the card. If light contained particles or simple straight-line rays, he reasoned, light not blocked by the opaque card would pass through the slits and travel in a straight line to the screen, where it would form two bright spots. This isnt what Young observed. Instead, he saw a bar code pattern of alternating light and dark bands on the screen. To explain this unexpected pattern, he imagined light traveling through space like a water wave, with crests and troughs. Thinking this way, he concluded that light waves traveled through each of the slits, creating two separate wave fronts. As these wave fronts arrived at the screen, they interfered with each other. Bright bands formed where two wave crests overlapped and added together. Dark bands formed where crests and troughs lined up and canceled each other out completely. This proves the theory that light is a wave. The particle theory of light This theory was developed by Sir Isaac Newton and Albert Eistein and said that the energy emitted by light travelled as small minimum quantities or packets of electromagnetic energy called photons According to the photon theory of light, photons . . . move at a constant velocity,c= 3 x 108m/s (i.e. the speed of light), in free space have zero mass carry energy and momentum, and The energy of each photon is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation. can be destroyed/created when radiation is absorbed/emitted. can have particle-like interactions (i.e. collisions) with electrons and other particles. (Jones, 2014) The photoelectric effect supports the particle theory of light The photoelectric effect is the phenomena where a metal releases electrons when exposed to light or electromagnetic radiation of a particular frequency. These emitted electrons are called photoelectrons. So basically this is how it works Every metal has a threshold frequency this is the minimum frequency of light or electromagnetic radiation that will causes the release of electron from the surface of a metal. This is because this frequency will supply the minimum amount of energy needed to overcome the force of attraction between the metal and the electron this is known as the work function of the metal What happens is when a light photon with energy equal to hf (h being planks constant and f being greater than or equal to the threshold frequency) strikes a metal surface all the energy of the photon is transferred to the electron. (Louw, 2014) Another way to prove the particle theory is the Atomic Spectra Emission spectra are produced when light from a light source such as a filament or a gas discharge tube is observed through a diffraction grating or a prism Continous spectra are produced when light from a glowing solid state material such as a filament passes through a triangular prism. This is because Energy transitions take place this means that in an atom electrons have specific energy levels as you can see An electron is excited to an unstable higher energy level and then falls back to a lower level. Photons with a specific energy and frequency are emitted. In such dense substances, the atoms are so close together that many different transitions of electrons can take place and light photons of any wave length can be radiated. This results in the different colours being emitted. The production of the line emission spectra A glowing gas is obtained by heating it or passing an electric current through it The glowing gas in the discharge tube is then observed through a diffraction grating ( a diffraction creating is a transparent plate on which parallel lines are ruled very closely à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ±600 per mm The electrons in an atom have only specific energy levels When an atom is in a gaseous state, electrons can be excited to a higher energy level through heat or electricity The electrons absorb a discrete amount of energy for a specific jump for example between energy level 3 and 1 The excited state is unstable so the electron falls back almost immediately to a lower level and emits light energy in the form of photons The energy of an emitted photon equals the energy difference between the higher and lower energy levels. The energy is emitted as light with a definite frequency and specific colour. Each element will produce a different line spectra due to the differing energy levels Atomic spectras that are observed can only be explained if light was a stream of particles. It can therefore be stated that light as dual particle-wave nature Pictures (Richard Anderson, 2011) (Top ten thailand , 2014) (Abovetopsecret, 2014) (Atal, 2011) (Britannica, 2014) (HowStuffWorks, 2014) (xsgeo, 1999) (Mastin, 2009) (Greenfield, 2002) (Paley, 2010) (Norton, 2013) (Anon., n.d.) (University of Nebraska Lincoln, 2014) Bibliography The physics classroom, 1996-2014. Propagation of an Electromagnetic Wave. [Online] Available at: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/waves/em.cfm [Accessed 24 September 2014]. Abovetopsecret, 2014. Scalar waves. [Online] Available at: http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread986938/pg4 [Accessed 24 September 2014]. Anon., n.d. Tumbler. [Online] Available at: http://onemeonelife.tumblr.com/ [Accessed 1 October 2014]. Atal, A., 2011. Davisson–Germer Experiment. [Online] Available at: http://sciencesummit.wordpress.com/2011/05/12/davisson–germer-experiment/ [Accessed 24 September 2014]. Britannica, 2014. Desert Mirage. [Online] Available at: http://kids.britannica.com/elementary/art-89417/A-mirage-in-the-desert-of-Namibia-leads-people-to [Accessed 24 September 2014]. Greenfield, D., 2002. Optical networking: fundamentals of light. [Online] Available at: http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=27658 [Accessed 1 October 2014]. HowStuffWorks, 2014. How light works. [Online] Available at: http://science.howstuffworks.com/light3.htm [Accessed 24 September 2014]. Jones, A. Z., 2014. What is a photon?. [Online] Available at: http://physics.about.com/od/lightoptics/f/photon.htm [Accessed 1 October 2014]. Louw, R., 2014. Physical Sciences, the Answer Series. 1st ed. Cape Town : The Answer. Mastin, L., 2009. QUANTA AND WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY. [Online] Available at: http://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/topics_quantum_quanta.html [Accessed 1 October 2014]. nightlase, 2014. Theory of Light. [Online] Available at: http://www.nightlase.com.au/education/optics/light.htm [Accessed 24 September 2014]. Norton, J. D., 2013. Origins of Quantum Theory. [Online] Available at: http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/quantum_theory_origins/ [Accessed 1 October 2014]. Paley, N., 2010. Czech myself before I wreck myself. [Online] Available at: http://blog.ninapaley.com/category/philosophy/ [Accessed 1 October 2014]. Richard Anderson, 2011. Santilli IsoRedShift. [Online] Available at: http://www.workshops-hadronic-mechanics.org/isoshifts.html [Accessed 24 September 2014]. school physics, 2013. Theories of light. [Online] Available at: http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age16-19/Wave properties/Wave properties/text/Theories_of_light/index.html [Accessed 24 September 2014]. The physics classroom, 1996-2014. Wavelike Behaviors of Light. [Online] Available at: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/light/Lesson-1/Wavelike-Behaviors-of-Light [Accessed 24 September 2014]. Top ten thailand , 2014. 10 Crazy Facts About Mirrors. [Online] Available at: http://www.toptenthailand.com/topten/detail/20140103122902277 [Accessed 24 September 2014]. University of Nebraska Lincoln, 2014. Spectral Classification of Stars. [Online] Available at: http://astro.unl.edu/naap/hr/hr_background1.html [Accessed 1 October 2014]. xsgeo, 1999. WHAT MAKES A WIGGLE ?. [Online] Available at: http://www.xsgeo.com/course/wiggle.htm [Accessed 25 September 2014]. Utilitarian Consequentialist Perspective: Ethics of Cloning Utilitarian Consequentialist Perspective: Ethics of Cloning The emergence of a cloned ewe called Dolly in 1997 was a shock to the entire globe. Since an animal had been successfully cloned, it was only natural for scientists to try to replicate human beings. In 2001, a U.S. Company that deals with Advanced Cell Technology announced their first attempt towards making a human clone.   Even though the experiment failed, the developments in biotechnology sparked a lot of interests regarding the morality and ethics of human cloning. This essay explores the bioethical issue of human cloning and how it challenges the absolute worth of the life of a human being from a utilitarian consequentialist perspective. Utilitarianism is a prominent ethical theory that assesses the rightness or wrongness of actions or ideas based on their implications for the mass population. Utilitarians view morality as an opportunity to make life better or to increase the good things on the planet by reducing the bad aspects. They think that what makes ideas and actions justified is their positive contribution to the human race. A person or entity is thus forced to develop calculations that will balance things out to generate the most happiness. Additionally, consequentialism allows morality to generate all forms of overall consequences (Vaughn, 2015). In the issue of human cloning, a utilitarian viewpoint would argue that it is essential to weigh the pleasure and pain that the idea or action will produce. Cloning entails the procedure of acquiring genetic material from one living organism to formulate an identical copy of it artificially. The outward appearance of the clone and organism will appear similar, but they will both have different personalities and attitudes. Human cloning possesses benefits such as the creation of additional living organisms that people need, regenerating an extinct species, providing infertile couples with children, compensating for the loss of a child, elimination of the birth defects, tissue and organ harvesting, amongst others (Vaughn, 2015). According to Vaughn (2015), the adverse implications of human cloning include the possibility of using the clones as slaves, experimentations on human beings, the lack of individuality of a clone, uncertain future outcomes regarding the health of the clone, aggressive genetic illnesses, social divide, etc. Human cloning is considered morally wrong by everyone who comes into contact with the potential dangers of the process. A significant portion of the clones dies after or before they are formed. They also obtain different malformations and abnormalities. Up to now, not even animal clones have successfully been created. It is thus disheartening to even contemplate a human child arising from a similar process. However, human cloning from a utilitarian consequentialist perspective is set to benefit many people on earth. From the standpoint, it is viewed as morally justified. Genetically altering the chromosomal composition of a person so that he or she can be free from defects would be ethically right. However, the uncertainty that arises from cloning makes it difficult to develop a concise analysis of the positive implications of the process. For example, the clone ewe, Dolly, was a remarkable creature who broke the boundaries of human thinking to usher in the prospects of human cloning. However, a few years later, Dolly exhibited signs of premature aging as well as genetic diseases (Vaughn, 2015). It is thus not right for scientists to be provided with the go ahead to dive into genetic engineering due to the uncertain outcomes of human cloning. At this early stage, a utilitarian consequentialist perspective of the bioethical issue is a bit hazy because it appears as if many individuals will not benefit from the scientific procedure. But there is also the aspect of a few mistakes saving millions of lives and ensuring the survival of the human race particularly at a time when the environment is in danger, and they are numerous incurable illnesses. Fortunately, with the introduction of computer simulations, it will be easier to examine the positive implications of human cloning to the general population since they will be no urgency to conduct human and animal experiments. Reference Vaughn, L. (2015). Doing ethics: Moral reasoning and contemporary issues. WW Norton Company.

Education Governance in Bangladesh Essay

This traditional thinking of education as the ticket to the good life emerges in different ways and degrees in Bangladesh. Education is seen as something that is received rather than achieved and it has increasingly become dependent on certificates. Education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another. The Government of Bangladesh places great importance on education and in this regard the Government has been trying to transform its huge population into human resource. Education for All (EFA) is the constitutional responsibility of the government. The constitution affirms equal rights in education for all. Since independence every government had taken several steps to increase the literacy rate in Bangladesh. But did they really work out? Our neighbor countries like India, Srilanka have made a great progress in literacy rate. But, where as the current literacy rate of Bangladesh is 63. 8 %. If all the steps were successfully implemented, then the rate would be around 80% (daily Janakantho, 24 July, 10). So, here is short description about the whole education system and the role of government in Bangladesh. Governance: Although the term governance is often used synonymously with the term government it tends rather to be used to describe the processes and systems by which a government or governor operate. The term government and governor describe the institutions and people involved. According to the World Bank†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Governance is â€Å"the traditions and institutions by which authority in a country is exercised for the common good. This includes (i) the process by which those in authority are selected, monitored and replaced, (ii) the capacity of the government to effectively manage its resources and implement sound policies, and (iii) the respect of citizens and the state for the institutions that govern economic and social interactions among them. According to the UNDP†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. â€Å"Governance is the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority to manage a nation’s affairs. It is the complex mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights and obligations, and mediate their differences. † Education Governance: Education governance is concerned with how the funding, provision, ownership and regulation of education and training systems is coordinated, and at what level; local, regional, national and supranational. It is government who play the most significant role in coordinating education, the distribution of these responsibilities has been changing in response to calls for greater efficiency, effectiveness, accountability and democracy. Households, communities, and new kinds of private actors, are increasingly involved in many different aspects of education and training governance, raising questions about equity, participation and transparency. Objectives of Education Governance: To inspire and create enthusiasm among the learners in their thoughts, deeds and daily life to establish moral, humanitarian, religious, cultural and social values in personal as well as in national life. †¢ To develop awareness in the learners to protect the independence, sovereignty and integrity of Bangladesh. †¢ To make education pragmatic, productive and creative with a view to bringing about changes in the socio-economic conditions of the country and making the students into a dutiful and responsibl e manpower with scientific outlook and help them develop the qualities of leadership. To give special emphasis on primary and secondary education with a view to expanding education, to instill respect and eagerness for physical labor and enable the learners acquire vocational education for self-employment in all stages of education. †¢ To promote fraternity, moral values, generosity and fellow-feeling in people and make them respectful of human rights. †¢ To promote democratic values through fostering tolerance of one another’s views and help develop life-oriented, realistic and positive attitude for blossoming democratic awareness. To ensure proper quality at every level of education; to strengthen and widen the knowledge, skills and attitude acquired in the previous stage (in accordance with various aims and objectives of education): to enable acquisition of new knowledge and skills and to encourage people to contribute in the system of education, especially in th e field of primary, secondary and vocational education. †¢ To emancipate the country from the curse of illiteracy. †¢ To create equal opportunities for education in accordance with merit and aptitude for the purpose of building a society free from disparity. To ensure gender parity in education and remove barriers of caste, creed and ethnicity in obtaining education. †¢ To ensure constitutional guarantee at all levels of education. †¢ To create awareness about protection of environment. Structure of Education sector in Bangladesh: The education system in Bangladesh is characterized by co-existence of three separate streams. The mainstream happens to be a vernacular based secular education system carried over from the colonial past. There also exists a separate religious system of education. Finally, based on use of English as the medium of instruction, another stream of education, modeled after the British education system, using the same curriculum, has rapidly grown in the metropolitan cities of Bangladesh. However diverse the above streams may apparently look, they have certain common elements, and there exists scope for re-integration of graduates of one stream with the other at different levels. Different Streams in Education The mainstream education system in Bangladesh is structured as follows: – a. One or two year pre-primary education imparted in private schools/kindergartens, and informally in government primary schools for six months. b. Five-year compulsory primary education for the 6-10 year age group, imparted mainly in government and non-government primary schools. In metropolitan cities, however, government and non-government primary schools cater to the educational needs only of the poorer sections of the people, as the better-off families usually send their children to Private English Medium schools/ secondary schools that run primary sections as well. Very few NGOs however impart education for the full 5-year primary education cycle. c. On completion of primary education, students (11+) enroll for junior secondary education that spans over 3 years. At the end of this phase of education, some students branch out to join the vocational stream, offered at Vocational Training Institutes (VTI) and Technical Training Centers (TTC) run by the Ministry of Education, and the Ministry of Labor and Employment respectively, while students in the mainstream continue in government and non-government secondary schools for a 2 year secondary education in their respective areas of specialization i. . humanities, science, commerce, etc. At the end of their secondary education, the students sit for their first public examination (S. S. C. ) under the supervision of six education boards. The students of religious education and English medium streams also sit for their respective public examinations, Dakhil, and O level, conducted by the Madrasah Educ ation Board, and London/Cambridge University respectively, facilitated by the British Council in case of the latter. d. After 10 years of schooling at primary and secondary level, students (16+) who succeed in passing the Secondary School Certificate (S. S. C. ) examination have the option of joining a college for a 2 year higher secondary education in their respective areas of specialization, or enroll in technical/ poly technical institutes for technical education. After 2-year higher secondary education, one has to sit for another public examination called Higher Secondary Certificate (H. S. C. ) Examination conducted by the Education Boards to qualify for further education. Students of Religious and English Medium streams also sit for their respective public examinations, Alim, and ‘A’ level, conducted by the Madrasah Education Board and London/Cambridge University respectively to qualify for further education. e. Under-graduate education of various duration (2 to 4 years) are offered to 18+ students at a number of public and private universities / degree colleges/technical colleges/ specialized institutions. Successful completion of a degree course is a pre-requisite for appointment to a white-collar civilian job. . Post-graduate education normally of 1-2 year duration is provided at universities and selected degree colleges and institutions. Key Organizations governing the education sector in Bangladesh: Many organizations are involved in the direction of higher education in Bangladesh, and there is no single overarching authority. The President of Bangladesh is the Chancellor of most of the universities and is responsible for the appoint ment of vice-chancellors. The Prime Minister is Chancellor of a limited number of universities. To reduce the burden on the universities, the NU was established to take over and organize the affiliated colleges in all fields except agriculture, engineering and medicine. The Bangladesh Institutes of Technology (BIT) Council (CBIT) co-ordinates the activities of the four engineering colleges that enroll around 3,200 students. It has virtually the same functions as the UGC, only for the institutes of technology. The Association of Universities of Bangladesh (AUB) co-ordinates the activities of universities in both academic and administrative matters. The AUB also leases with the government and the UGC on administrative and financial affairs. Management of the education sector in Bangladesh: Pre-primary education, generally recognized as a useful stage of education to smoothen the transition from home to an institutional environment and thereby contributing to reduced drop out rates at primary level has so long remained outside the purview of official education policy of Bangladesh. Its management therefore lies at present exclusively in the hands of the schools imparting such education and some NGOs running such schools. The Education Policy 2010 did however recognize the need for pre-primary education and recommended its gradual introduction to 5+ children in primary schools with a view to universalizing one-year pre-primary education. As provision of universal compulsory primary education has been recognized by the Constitution of Bangladesh as a state responsibility, the government has assumed direct responsibility of the management of primary education in Bangladesh, particularly in the wake of enactment of Compulsory Primary Education Act in 1990. The overall responsibility of management of primary education lies with the Primary and Mass Education Division (PMED) set up as a separate Division with the status of a Ministry in 1992. While the PMED is involved in formulation of policies, the responsibility of implementation of the same rests with the Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) headed by a Director General. The different tiers of administration such as Divisions, Districts and Upazilas are manned by Deputy Directors, District Primary Education Officers (DPEO) and Upazila Education Officers (UEO) respectively. UEOs are assisted by a number of AUEOs each in charge of a cluster of primary schools. At the school level, there exist School Management Committees (SMC) formed as per government directives with certain well defined functions, and Parent Teachers Associations (PTA) playing a supportive role in building favorable teaching-learning environment in schools. The Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) and its subordinate offices in the district and upazila are solely responsible for management and supervision of primary education. Their responsibilities include recruitment, posting, and transfer of teachers and other staff; arranging in-service training of teachers; and distribution of free text books, and supervision of schools. The responsibility of school construction, repair and supply of school furniture lies with the Facilities Department (FD) and Local Government Engineering Department (LGED). The National Curriculum and Text Book Board (NCTB) is responsible for the development of curriculum and production of textbooks. While the Ministry of Education (MOE) is responsible for formulation of policies, the Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education (DSHE) under the Ministry of Education is responsible for implementing the same at secondary and higher education level. The NCTB is responsible for developing curriculum, and publishing standard textbooks. Seven regions based Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE) are responsible for conducting the two public examinations, S. S. C. and H. S. C. , in addition to granting recognition to non-government secondary schools. DSHE is divided into eight zones, each in charge of a Deputy Director assisted by two Inspectors, and two Assistant Inspectors. District Offices are headed by District Education Officers (DEO). There exist three different levels of supervision. BISEs are responsible for accreditation of non-government secondary schools. However, because of lack of inspection capacity, the work is delegated to Zonal Inspectors and DEOs. The Directorate of Inspection and Audit of MOE with a small manpower of 24 Inspectors are responsible for periodic qualitative and quantitative evaluation of non-government schools. Each zone has two Inspectors and two Assistant Inspectors to inspect all schools covered by the zones. At the school level, in case of non-government secondary schools, School Management Committees (SMC), and at the intermediate college level in case of non-government colleges, Governing Bodies (GB), formed as per government directives, are responsible for mobilizing resources, approving budgets, controlling expenditures; and appointing and disciplining staff. In government secondary schools there does not exist any SMC. The Head Master s solely responsible for running the school and is supervised by the Deputy Director of the respective zone. PTAs however exist essentially for ensuring a better teaching learning environment. The Directorate of Technical Education (DTE) is responsible for planning, development and implementation of technical and vocational education in the country. Universities in Bangladesh are autonomous bodies administered by statutory bodies such as Syndicate, Se nate, Academic Council etc. in accordance with provisions laid down in their respective Acts. While the private universities are regulated by the University Grand Commission (UGC). Regulation/Licensing authority Under the President’s Order No. 10 of 1973, which established the UGC, the UGC has the right to visit the public universities or to have them visited by teams of experts as and when necessary for evaluating programs and assessing their needs and requirements. The establishment of a private university requires the formation of a non-profit corporation or foundation and the Private Universities Act stipulates a series of conditions for establishing a private university. Some of them are given below: †¢ A security deposit of Taka 50 million in interest-bearing government bonds. Transnational Report – Case Study: Bangladesh (October 2003) page 18 of 36 †¢ A minimum of two faculties. †¢ Permission to rent office space only for 5 years, before building their own campus. They should own land of at least five acres. †¢ Programs and courses to be offered must be approved by the UGC before students are admitted. †¢ Five percent of places must be reserved for free studentships to ‘poor but meritorious’ students. Following establishment, the UGC has the authority to periodically monitor, visit and evaluate the performance of private universities, regarding the numbers of qualified teachers, library books, facilities, approved curricula, and to recommend de-certification if institutions fail to perform according to agreed-upon standards. The National University reviews and approves the applications of all degree col leges that seek Government recognition. Applications are reviewed against minimum criteria for facilities, teaching staff, and library and laboratory facilities. Approval must be reaffirmed for all institutions each year and institutions can be de-affiliated. Guidelines of Ministry of Education: †¢ Human resource development is at the core of Bangladesh’s development efforts and access to quality education is critical to poverty reduction and economic development. The Government is committed to undertaking structural reforms that are expected to bring significant improvements in the education sector. Bangladesh’s commitment to education has been clearly stated in its Constitution and development plans with education being given the highest priority in the public sector investments. Education sector allocations are currently about 2. 3 percent of GDP and 14 percent of total government expenditure. Maintaining this commitment to the education sector is imperative in order to achieve Education for All (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). †¢ The management of the education system falls under two ministries – the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education (MoPME, responsible for primary education and mass literacy) and the Ministry of Education (MoE, responsible for secondary, vocational and tertiary education). Overall there are more than 17 million students at the primary level, and over 8. 0 million at the secondary level. Enrolments at the tertiary level are relatively small but growing very rapidly. †¢ Bangladesh has made significant progress, especially in regard to increasing access and gender equity, both at primary and secondary levels. Gross primary enrollment rates rose from 90 percent in the late 1990s to 98 percent in 2003, while a corresponding increase in enrollment rates at the secondary level rise to 44 percent. Gender parity in access to primary and secondary education has also been achieved. These achievements are particularly spectacular when compared to countries in the South Asia region and other countries at similar levels of per-capita income. †¢ The Government is strongly committed to alleviating the existing problems in respect of management and quality through reforms across the education system. At the primary level, MoPME is supported by a multi-donor group through the Primary Education Development Program II (PEDP II), which aims to strengthen educational access, quality and efficiency. In order to address issues at the secondary and higher levels, MoE has developed a medium-term framework for the secondary education sub-sector, focusing on quality improvements, policy measures and specific actions needed to reform the system. The development of this medium-term framework has benefited from an extensive range of consultations and workshops with stakeholders at the central, district, and upazila levels. The main objective of reforms being proposed is to address systemic governance issues aimed at raising the quality and cost-effectiveness of service delivery, and improve equity of access in secondary education. †¢ MoE is aiming to move towards a devolved system of governance within the current administrative structure. In this system the central government will be responsible for formulating policies, financing, setting quality standards, and monitoring and evaluation etc. , while lower levels of government will be responsible for administering the system. MoE is empowering officials at the district and upazila levels to take greater responsibility in monitoring school performance and ensure public disclosure of information (e. g. , SSC passing rates, teacher absenteeism, class sizes, etc. ) related to school quality. †¢ To ensure appropriate financial controls, MoE is implementing a Financial Management Reform Program (FMRP). This is intended to increase accountability and transparency in the use of resources Main laws governing education in Bangladesh: The legal basis for higher education is complicated, with some laws deriving from colonial time sand others from the Pakistan era. There may be fundamental change in the governance and administration of higher education in the near future (World Bank, 1999b). Currently, the universities have autonomy (by the parliamentary acts) to work within the UGC-given parameters, and the same is true for degree colleges under the NU. Public Universities Ordinance (1973) is the governance framework for public universities in Bangladesh.

Psychological and social processes in the development of drug addiction Essay

Psychological and social processes in the development of drug addiction Introduction            Drug addiction can be defined as a compulsive need to use drugs in order to function normally. It can also be defined as primary, chronic, neurobiological disease with genetic, psychosocial and environmental factors influencing its development and manifestations. It is characterized by behaviors that include one of the following: impaired control over the drug use, compulsive use, continued use despite the harm it does on the individual and its craving.            When an individual persists in the use of alcohol or other drugs despite the problems related to use of the substance, substance dependence may be diagnosed. Repetitive use may result in tolerance to the effect of the drug and withdraw symptoms when use is reduced or stopped.            Some of the most important things to know about addiction are that it is fundamentally about compulsive behavior and that such habits originate outside consciousness; from the unconscious mind. It is also important to know that addiction could be heritable meaning that family background and genetics play a big role. Also, people with additions often have psychiatric disorders and that it is characterized by frequent relapse (one should not expect to overcome addiction on the first try.) Another important thing to note is that different psychotherapy all produces similar results (Cohen, 1985, p.98)..            Drugs that cause addiction include both legal and illegal drugs as well as prescription or over the counter drugs. Addictive drugs also include a large number of substrates that are currently considered to have no medical value and are not available over the counter or by prescription. Several theories of drug addiction exist, some of the main ones being genetic predisposition, the self-medication theory, and factors involved with social/economic development. It has long been established that genetic or biological factors along with social and psychological factors are the main contributors of addiction (Bier, 1962, 74). Biological development of drug addiction Substance abuse and genetics            Genetics is one factor in addiction. The development of an addiction is influenced by multiple biological, familial psychological and social cultural factors. In our societies every one has access to drugs and alcohol, some people use them and other people become addicted. However, not all people who use substances will become addicted dependent or even use them regularly. Similar upbringing, environmental factors rate of abuse for a drug and even peer influence still do not mean that people will struggle with drug addiction.            Genetics account up to around half of the reasons for a person becoming addicted. There ire no specific genes for addiction though there are a number of biological and genetic factors that make someone more or less vulnerable to becoming an addict. Genetics are thought to contribute to the development of heavy substance abuse although environmental and social factors are necessary to lead someone into that problem (Barnard, 2007, p.38).            There are no genes or a set of genes that have been identified to directly cause a person to become a drug abuser or engage in drug taking activities. Genes are important in the control of behavior. If a gene is absent, a protein that controls the development or function of a psychological system may not be produced. In certain cases, the impact may be obvious, such as in case of mental retardation or related diseases. In other cases, the impact of genes on behavior may be less obvious but just as important in a person’s development. This is the case when genetic factors produce a tendency or predisposition to respond in a certain manner. Such is believed to be the influence of genes on a number of behavioral traits and disorders, including drugs and alcoholism dependence. Thus, genes are not the sole determinant of alcoholism or substance absence but their presence or absence may increase the likelihood that a person will become alcohol or drug dependent. Genetic predisposition and vulnerability            Genetic predisposition is considered important n development of drug and substance abuse. It is thought that an individual whose parent or grandparent has/had the problem of addiction are more vulnerable to addiction. This does not directly mean that people born in families where substance abuse has been a problem will have the problem but they are more susceptible to developing an addiction. It is also very difficult for them to quit once they get addicted or have more severe withdrawal symptoms.            Vulnerability to substance abuse is also influenced by demographic, environmental, behavioral and personality factors. Poverty, previous sexual abuse, rebelliousness, delinquency, incarceration and peer drug use are also issues that contribute to a person’s vulnerability without which genes have little or no influence on the person whose family has the history of addiction. Susceptibility to addiction            A person does not inherit a substance abuse but inherit susceptibility to it. Those people who are susceptible to addiction may never develop that problem unless they are exposed to the predisposing factors seen above. Note that a person who does not have a genetic factor may develop the problem and pass it on to his future generation. Genetics may have a place in the transition from recreational drugs taking behavior to established pattern of drug abuse. These genetic factors may include personality traits, mental health, psychological reactions to a drug such as the case of severity of hangovers and risk taking behavior.            Genetics may play a role in determining what kind of a drug a person is likely to abuse and which ione he/she cannot although this is also influence by the peer and environmental factors. Parental alcoholism            Parental alcoholism is known to contribute significantly to the risk of the child developing the same condition. This may occur for genetic reasons though it would also be affected by factors such as personality traits, exposure to alcohol and alcoholism lifestyle, peer pressure and mental health (Andrews, 1961, p.25).            For male children, the risk is up to eight times higher than that of female children of alcoholics. Behavior is considered the biggest factor in this development as disinhibiting and thrill-seeking traits are more in boys than in girls.            Alcoholism however, is not simply caused by genetics and no one should take that as an excuse for taking it and developing addiction. Family does not play a big role in influencing a person’s decision to use or not to use alcohol or other substances.            Adopted children have twice the risk if their biological parents were drug abusers. This suggests that for parents who aim to adopt children should research on the heath history of the child incase the child is susceptible so as to take the necessary measures. This will also help the parent in deciding the type of environment to raise the adopted child.            Biological development could also be argued to affect the brain causing long term changes in the anatomy and physiology of the brain’s neurons. Alcohol, methamphetamine, and MDMA (ecstasy) have been shown to be neurotoxic in animal studies. Unlike other cells in the body, neurons in many parts of the brain do not have the capacity to regenerate although recent studies have shown that the adult human brain can generate new neurons in the hippocampus, a part of brain responsible for memory and learning. Alcohol kills neurons in a part of brain that help create new memories (hippocampus and mammillary bodies). If those memories die, the capacity for learning decreases. Methamphetamine is toxic to dopamine containing neurons. MDMA has been shown to damage axon terminals of neurons that produce another neurotransmitter called serotonin. In addition to neurotoxic effects, drugs can significantly alter the activity of the brain. These events could be considered as a biological development of addiction since one the brain cells have been damaged, the person cannot function normally without their presence (Conrad, Martin, & ÄnggaÌŠrd, 1977, p.49). Psychological processes in the development of drug addiction            Drug addiction is behavioral and carries no connotations regarding the drugs potential adverse effects, the social acceptability of drug usage or physiological consequences of chronic drug administration. Although drug addiction is frequently has adverse medical consequences, it is usually associated with strong social disapproval.            Initial drug use can be motivated by a number of factors such as curiosity about the effects of the drug, peer pressure or psychodynamic processes can all provide sufficient motivation for experimental or circumstantial drug use. The development of addiction is thought to involve a simultaneous process of increased focus on and engagement in a particular behavior and the attenuation or shutting down of other behavior. For example, under certain experimental circumstances such as social deprivation and boredom, animals allowed unlimited to self administer certain psychoactive drugs will show such a strong preference that they will forgo food, sleep and sex for continued access. 59499524447500Drug Use 109347025146000899795825500004805045831850031743658318500 Casual drug intensive drug use compulsive drug use Addiction 14560558191500Circumstantial motivational strength motivational toxicity. Drug use            The above diagram represents a continuum of drug use illustrating the progression from casual drug use to addiction. Motivational strength is the determining factor in categorizing drug use. Motivational toxicity has not been considered as a defining characteristic though it may be the most distinguishing feature.            Substance abuse is referred to as psychological dependence by the psychiatrists who are considered as a form of a disease. Another lesser known situation is the pseudo-addiction. A patient with this situation will exhibit drug seeking behavior reminiscent of psychological addiction, but they have a genuine pain or other symptoms that have been undertreated.            Normally, psychological dependency leads to psychological withdrawal symptoms such as craving, irritability, insomnia, depression, anorexia and many others. Addiction in theory can be derived in any rewarding behavior and is believed to be strongly associated with the dopaminergic system of the brains reward system as in the case of cocaine and amphetamines. Some claim that it is a habitual means to avoid undesired activities but typically it is only so to a clinical level in individuals who have emotional, social or psychological dysfunctions replacing normal positive stimuli not otherwise attained.            If a person is physically dependent but not psychologically dependent can have their dose slowly dropped until they are no longer physical dependent. However, if a person is psychologically dependent, there is always the risk of relapse in abuser and subsequent physical dependence. Psychological dependence is not only limited to substances; even activities and behavioral pattern can be considered addictions if they become uncontrollable for example gambling, internet addiction, sexual addiction/pornography addiction, overreacting, self-injury, compulsive buying or work addiction.            Studies have examined factors which moderate substance abuse or dependence. For example there is a significant relationship between psycho-behavioral risk factors such as tolerance to deviance, rebelliousness, achievement, perceived drug risk, familism, family church attendance and other factors and substance abuse and dependence. That relationship is moderated by familism which means the strength of the relationship is increased or decreased based on the level of familism present in a given individual.            There are several factors that are thought to mediate between psycho-behavior and substance abuse. The first factor is risk taking behavior and parental involvement. Studies have shown that children who spend more time with their parents are not likely to get involved with drugs unlike children who get to learn most of the things in life from their friends. Generally people who like taking risks in life are more susceptible in life since they tend to experiment once they become familiar with the substance.            Another example of mediating variable is depression. Depression has been seen to mediate between childhood maltreatment and subsequent substance abuse in adulthood. In other words, childhood physical abuse is associated with increased drug and alcohol in young adulthood. More specifically, depression helps to explain how childhood abuse is related to subsequent drug abuse in young adulthood. A third example of a mediating variable is an increase in externalizing symptoms. In other words, stressful life events are associated with externalizing symptoms such as aggression or hostility which can lead to peer alienation or acceptance by socially defiant peers, which could lead to increased drug use (Gray, 1999, p.75). Management Addiction severity index            Some medical systems including those of at least fifteen states of the United States refer to an Addiction Severity Index to assess the severity of problems related to substance use. The index assesses the problem in six areas: medical, employment/support, alcohol and other drug use, legal, family/social and psychiatric. Detoxification            Early treatment of acute withdrawal often includes medical detoxification which can include doses of anxiolytics or narcotics to reduce the symptoms of withdrawal. An experimental drug, ibogaine is also proposed to treat withdrawal symptoms and craving.            Neural feedback therapy has shown statistically significant improvement in numerous researches conducted on alcoholics as well as mixed substance abuse population. In chronic opiate addiction, a surrogate drug such as methadone is sometimes offered as a form of opiate replacement therapy. However, treatment approaches universal focus of an individual’s ultimate choice to pursue an alternate course of action (Ausubel, 1958, p.76).            Disorders such as post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. This is seen as a form of psychological development of addiction to drugs.            Drugs such as stimulants cause psychical addiction which could be moderate to severe and withdrawal is purely psychological and psychosomatic. Others such as amphetamine and methamphetamine, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, sedatives and hypnotics also cause psychical addiction which could be mild to severe and physiological addiction; abrupt withdrawal could be fatal.            Some individuals self-medicate themselves with drugs such as alcohol and other drugs to avoid their intolerable states of their minds such as stress which increase the craving for drugs and relapses. Research as shown that people who survive disasters are prone to stress-related            Social development and adjustment factors also play a major role in drug abuse and addiction. An assumption of the developmental perspective is that the course of one’s life is a process in which life circumstances change, milestones are met or missed and new social roles are created while old ones are abandoned. These events and roles happen at some given stages of life although it also depends with the environment in which an individual is brought up in.            Studies of the social factors involved in drug use have mostly focused on either adolescents or young adults but a significant number of cocaine users may not initiate until they are at their middle adulthood. The majority of people enter into adult social roles on schedule. However some people enter into these roles earlier or latter that the same age peers. The developmental perspective predicts that this will lead to less than satisfactory adjustment and possibly negative consequences including drug and alcohol dependence.            Those who use alcohol and recreational drug at an early age are at a greater risk to developing addiction. The younger a person is when they experiment with drugs the more likely they are to become addicts latter on. These experimentations could be brought about by social functions and festivals in our societies especially. When the parents use alcohol and other drugs in such occasions it may be hard to control the children especially at adolescent stage (Bethesda, 2006, p.57).            Those who experience childhood trauma as well as those growing up in an environment where alcohol and other drug abuse is considered normal behavior are at even higher risk of developing addiction both of which are more or less social. For instance childhood trauma could result from tribal wars due to cultural differences in our societies where a child may be sexually and physically abused.            Some people just become victims of social classes and poverty where parents make illicit brews to sell them for a living. In this situation, the child grows up in that environment where brewing, selling and drinking the brews is the order of the day. Some of the parents who sell the drugs especially in Africa use the drugs on their children as sedatives as their do their work. In this situation the child grows up operating under the influence of drugs. This child has a very high risk of developing addiction latter on.            It is also believed that is a person grew up in the environment where his/her self esteem is suppressed are also at a risk of developing addiction. Also those people who find it difficult to manage antisocial behavior tend to ‘hind’ in drugs which may eventually lead to addiction for example gays. Poor parenting where children are exposed to social media at an early age could also be a motivating social factor to use drugs. Children watch movies which suggest that the only way to operate normally is under the influence of drugs. Such a child is likely to experiment. As much as poverty may contribute to the problem of drug use and eventually addiction, availability of money to buy the drugs may also contribute a lot. When a person is especially at an adolescent stage is exposed to the drugs may be by peers, availability of money will be the next factor. Other social factors that may lead to drugs and eventually addiction include: feeling of insecurity i n relationships, attention seekers, those who find delayed gratification and difficult impulsiveness (Washington, 1980, p.39). Addiction as a learned behavior            It is suggested that people may fall into addiction because of learned behavior. This would explain why those who grow up around substance abusers are more likely to become addicts themselves. Learning theory is based on the idea people don’t have to experience every behavior in order to decide whether to adopt it. If it is observed to bring reward and satisfaction to another person, it can be enough to convince another person to copy it. According to this theory, the answer to addiction is to unlearn the maladaptive behavior.            Studies have shown that the addictive power of a drug has been exaggerated and that interest in drugs diminishes in both laboratory rats and people when alternative rein forcers of an enriched environment are offered to the subject. Rather than addiction, poverty and crimes being inevitable consequences of drugs; drugs are more likely to be a consequence of poverty and crime.            Acute or recreational use of most psychoactive drugs causes the release and prolonged action of dopamine and serotonin within the reward circuit.            In conclusion, drug and substance abuse is more of ones choice than the motivating factors that are involved. No one should blame the biology (genes) and other factor s such as life events and the society for his/her involvement with drugs. Everyone should be responsible of choices they make in life considering the damage such that is posed by addiction both socially and economically (Horgan, 2001, p.76). References Andrews, M. F. (1961). Creativity and psychological health;. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press. Ausubel, D. P. (1958). Drug addiction: physiological, psychological, and sociological aspects. New York: Random House. Barnard, M. (2007). Drug addiction and families. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Bellenir, K. (1996). Substance abuse sourcebook: basic health-related information about the abuse of legal and illegal substances such as alcohol, tobacco, prescription drugs, marijuana, cocaine, and heroin ; and including facts about substance abuse prevention strategies, intervention methods, treatment and recovery programs, and a section addressing the special problems related to substance abuse during pregnancy. Detroit, MI.: Omnigraphics. Bier, W. C. (1962). Problems in addiction: alcohol and drug addiction,. New York: Fordham University Press. Cohen, S. (1985). The substance abuse problems. New York: Haworth Press. Conrad, H. T., Martin, W. R., & ÄnggaÌŠrd, E. (1977). Drug addiction. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Gossop, M. (2003). Drug addiction and its treatment. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gray, P. (1999). Psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. Heyman, G. M. (2009). Addiction: a disorder of choice. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Hollander, B. (2012). Addiction. New York: Rosen Pub.. Horgan, C. M. (2001). Substance abuse: the nation’s number one health problem : key indicators for policy update. Princeton, NJ: The Foundation. Lewis, J. M. (1976). No single thread: psychological health in family systems. New York: Brunner/Mazel. McDougall, W. (1921). An introduction to social psychology, (14th ed.). Boston: J.W. Luce & co.. McGhee, L. K. (2011). Drug addiction. San Diego, CA: ReferencePoint Press. Myers, D. G. (2004). Psychology (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. Pathways of addiction opportunities in drug abuse research. (1996). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Self, D. W., & Staley, J. K. (2010). Behavioral neuroscience of drug addiction. Heidelberg: Springer. Singh, J. M., Miller, L. H., & Lal, H. (19721974). Drug addiction. Mount Kisco, N.Y.: Futura Pub. Co.. Sora, J. W. (1997). Substance abuse. New York: H.W. Wilson. Bethesda, Md.: (2006). National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health. Washington, D. (1980). The facts about â€Å"drug abuse†. New York: Free Press. Source document

Personal Narrative A Unique Interest in Architecture

Architecture. My journey is hopefully about to start right here. As a young girl I have constantly been attracted to those tiny details that everybody seems to neglect, I had an interest to look further into things. You could say I viewed things from various angles and tried seeing through them. Almost as if trying to translate their meaning. Quite obviously at such a delicately minded age I was not sure what this interest I had really meant. However, as my mind widened and I was able to produce realistic conclusions, I finally understood. Ultimately figuring it all out, my obsession was revealed. Putting the puzzle together, my nights spent drawing cubes haphazardly and coming up with surprisingly astonishing ideas for buildings I would like to see my trademark around the world, which is only possible by studying architecture, it only drastically grew simultaneously, after increasing my knowledge about this exciting field, leading me to understand what it was all about. 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